Guiding Sustainable Enhanced PFAS Drinking Water Treatment Options

Filling glass from faucet

Institution: University of Maine
Sponsor: Maine Water Resources Research Institute

Team Lead:

  • Reed Miller, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UMaine

Team Members:

  • Onur Apul, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UMaine
  • Jean MacRae, Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UMaine
  • Caroline Noblet, Associate Professor, School of Economics, UMaine
  • Josephine Adu-Gyamfi, Master’s student, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Mitchell Center Sustainability Graduate Fellow, UMaine

Exposure to PFAS, the so-called “Forever Chemicals”, via contaminated drinking water poses negative health risks to residents. The US EPA is set to establish national limits on the amount of PFAS in drinking water that are lower than those currently enforced in Maine. We estimate that at least 11% of Maine’s public water systems would need to invest in treatment in order to meet the new national limits. However, the four major treatment technologies available often have large carbon footprints, which is a challenge as Maine has an ambitious carbon neutrality goal. In this project, we will create thorough comparisons between the treatment options, including their environmental impact, and create an informational resource. We will meet with Maine water system stakeholders several times to understand their approaches to and concerns regarding meeting the new limits, to pilot the use of our resource for feedback, and then to distribute it broadly.

Interim Report

This project aims to help Maine’s public drinking water systems make informed choices about how to remove PFAS, “forever chemicals” from public water supplies. PFAS have been found in many Maine communities and can affect human health and the environment. Because new federal drinking water standards will be enforced, water systems need guidance that balances safety, cost, and sustainability.

Through surveys and interviews with water system operators, the research gathered insights on how utilities currently select treatment technologies and what challenges they face. These qualitative findings were combined with a computer-based modeling quantitative approach that tested four best available treatment options: granular activated carbon, ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and nanofiltration.  The quantitative analysis considered not only treatment performance but also scored the options on life cycle environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas emissions and long-term costs.  In general, results showed that while reverse osmosis and nanofiltration remove PFAS most effectively, they require more energy. Granular activated carbon and ion exchange are more affordable but vary in removal performance depending on design parameters and site conditions.

Since no two treatment plants are alike, a wide range of water system parameters in the modeling were varied to identify which were most influential in driving each technology’s score.  These driving parameters are now being incorporated into an interactive user-friendly tool. 

The study expanded an existing PFAS decision-support tool that integrates stakeholder feedback and sustainability data, helping Maine’s utilities compare options and plan future investments. This work supports the state’s goals for clean water and carbon neutrality.

Products

Thesis:

Adu-Gyamfi, Josephine (2025). Guiding Sustainable Enhanced PFAS Drinking Water Treatment Options. MS Thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, ME, 149 pp.

Presentations:

  • Adu-Gyamfi, Josephine; Lukas Norment; Onur Apul; Jean MacRae; Caroline Noblet; Reed Miller (June 2025). “Quantitative Evaluation of Water Treatment Technologies for PFAS Removal: A Sustainability Perspective on Regulatory Compliance and Environmental Impact.” Universities Council on Water Resources/National Institutes for Water Resources (UCOWR/NIWR) 2025 Annual Conference. Minneapolis, MN. (Audience: academic, students, water professionals, government).
  • Norment, Lukas; Josephine Adu-Gyamfi; Onur Apul; Jean MacRae; Caroline Noblet; Reed Miller (June 2025). “Maine Stakeholders’ Preliminary Perspectives on PFAS Mitigation”. Universities Council on Water Resources/National Institutes for Water Resources (UCOWR/NIWR) 2025 Annual Conference. Minneapolis, MN. (Audience: academic, students, water professionals, government).
  • Adu-Gyamfi, Josephine; Lukas Norment; Onur Apul; Jean MacRae; Caroline Noblet; Reed Miller (March 2025). “Guiding Sustainable PFAS Drinking Water Treatment Options in Maine”. Maine Sustainability & Water Conference. Augusta, ME. (Audience: academic, students, water professionals, government, public).

Funding Received:

  • Streamlined Tool for Guiding Optimal Selection of PFAS Water Treatment Technologies
    PI: Reed Miller
    Sponsor: USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Center of Excellence in support of Finding Solutions to Reduce the Impact of Synthetic Organofluorine Compounds on Agriculture and Food Systems
    Awarded: 10/17/25

Awards/Achievements:

  • 2025 New England Water Works Association (NWWA) Maud L. Malley Professional Work for Water Training Scholarship Award, Maine – Josephine Adu-Gyamfi ($2,000)
  • 2025 Universities Council on Water Resources/National Institutes for Water Resources (UCOWR/NIWR) conference Travel Award, Minnesota – Josephine Adu-Gyamfi ($2,060.29)

Other Activities:

Mitchell Center Story – Sustainability Graduate Fellow Goes with the Flow for Safe Drinking Water. May 1st, 2025.